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带权最小二乘

1 原理

  给定n个带权的观察样本\((w_i,a_i,b_i)\):

  • \(w_i\)表示第i个观察样本的权重;
  • \(a_i\)表示第i个观察样本的特征向量;
  • \(b_i\)表示第i个观察样本的标签。

  每个观察样本的特征数是m。我们使用下面的带权最小二乘公式作为目标函数:

\[minimize_{x}\frac{1}{2} \sum_{i=1}^n \frac{w_i(a_i^T x -b_i)^2}{\sum_{k=1}^n w_k} + \frac{1}{2}\frac{\lambda}{\delta}\sum_{j=1}^m(\sigma_{j} x_{j})^2\]

  其中\(\lambda\)是正则化参数,\(\delta\)是标签的总体标准差,\(\sigma_j\)是第j个特征列的总体标准差。

  这个目标函数有一个解析解法,它仅仅需要一次处理样本来搜集必要的统计数据去求解。与原始数据集必须存储在分布式系统上不同,
如果特征数相对较小,这些统计数据可以加载进单机的内存中,然后在driver端使用乔里斯基分解求解目标函数。

  spark ml中使用WeightedLeastSquares求解带权最小二乘问题。WeightedLeastSquares仅仅支持L2正则化,并且提供了正则化和标准化
的开关。为了使正太方程(normal equation)方法有效,特征数不能超过4096。如果超过4096,用L-BFGS代替。下面从代码层面介绍带权最小二乘优化算法
的实现。

2 代码解析

  我们首先看看WeightedLeastSquares的参数及其含义。

private[ml] class WeightedLeastSquares(
    val fitIntercept: Boolean,  //是否使用截距
    val regParam: Double,    //L2正则化参数,指上面公式中的lambda
    val elasticNetParam: Double,  // alpha,控制L1和L2正则化
    val standardizeFeatures: Boolean, // 是否标准化特征
    val standardizeLabel: Boolean,  // 是否标准化标签
    val solverType: WeightedLeastSquares.Solver = WeightedLeastSquares.Auto,
    val maxIter: Int = 100, // 迭代次数
    val tol: Double = 1e-6) extends Logging with Serializable 
    
 sealed trait Solver
 case object Auto extends Solver
 case object Cholesky extends Solver
 case object QuasiNewton extends Solver

  在上面的代码中,standardizeFeatures决定是否标准化特征,如果为真,则\(\sigma_j\)是A第j个特征列的总体标准差,否则\(\sigma_j\)为1。
standardizeLabel决定是否标准化标签,如果为真,则\(\delta\)是标签b的总体标准差,否则\(\delta\)为1。solverType指定求解的类型,有AutoCholesky
QuasiNewton三种选择。tol表示迭代的收敛阈值,仅仅在solverTypeQuasiNewton时可用。

2.1 求解过程

  WeightedLeastSquares接收一个包含(标签,权重,特征)的RDD,使用fit方法训练,并返回WeightedLeastSquaresModel

def fit(instances: RDD[Instance]): WeightedLeastSquaresModel

  训练过程分为下面几步。

  • 1 统计样本信息
val summary = instances.treeAggregate(new Aggregator)(_.add(_), _.merge(_))

  使用treeAggregate方法来统计样本信息。统计的信息在Aggregator类中给出了定义。通过展开上面的目标函数,我们可以知道这些统计信息的含义。

private class Aggregator extends Serializable {
    var initialized: Boolean = false
    var k: Int = _  // 特征数
    var count: Long = _  // 样本数
    var triK: Int = _  // 对角矩阵保存的元素个数
    var wSum: Double = _  // 权重和
    private var wwSum: Double = _  // 权重的平方和
    private var bSum: Double = _  // 带权标签和
    private var bbSum: Double = _  // 带权标签的平方和
    private var aSum: DenseVector = _  // 带权特征和
    private var abSum: DenseVector = _  // 带权特征标签相乘和
    private var aaSum: DenseVector = _  // 带权特征平方和
    }

  方法add添加样本的统计信息,方法merge合并不同分区的统计信息。代码很简单,如下所示:

   /**
     * Adds an instance.
     */
    def add(instance: Instance): this.type = {
      val Instance(l, w, f) = instance
      val ak = f.size
      if (!initialized) {
        init(ak)
      }
      assert(ak == k, s"Dimension mismatch. Expect vectors of size $k but got $ak.")
      count += 1L
      wSum += w
      wwSum += w * w
      bSum += w * l
      bbSum += w * l * l
      BLAS.axpy(w, f, aSum)
      BLAS.axpy(w * l, f, abSum)
      BLAS.spr(w, f, aaSum) // wff^T
      this
    }
    
   /**
     * Merges another [[Aggregator]].
     */
    def merge(other: Aggregator): this.type = {
      if (!other.initialized) {
        this
      } else {
        if (!initialized) {
          init(other.k)
        }
        assert(k == other.k, s"dimension mismatch: this.k = $k but other.k = ${other.k}")
        count += other.count
        wSum += other.wSum
        wwSum += other.wwSum
        bSum += other.bSum
        bbSum += other.bbSum
        BLAS.axpy(1.0, other.aSum, aSum)
        BLAS.axpy(1.0, other.abSum, abSum)
        BLAS.axpy(1.0, other.aaSum, aaSum)
        this
      }

  Aggregator类给出了以下一些统计信息:

aBar: 特征加权平均数
bBar: 标签加权平均数
aaBar: 特征平方加权平均数
bbBar: 标签平方加权平均数
aStd: 特征的加权总体标准差
bStd: 标签的加权总体标准差
aVar: 带权的特征总体方差

  计算出这些信息之后,将均值缩放到标准空间,即使每列数据的方差为1。

// 缩放bBar和 bbBar
val bBar = summary.bBar / bStd
val bbBar = summary.bbBar / (bStd * bStd)

val aStd = summary.aStd
val aStdValues = aStd.values
// 缩放aBar
val aBar = {
      val _aBar = summary.aBar
      val _aBarValues = _aBar.values
      var i = 0
      // scale aBar to standardized space in-place
      while (i < numFeatures) {
        if (aStdValues(i) == 0.0) {
          _aBarValues(i) = 0.0
        } else {
          _aBarValues(i) /= aStdValues(i)
        }
        i += 1
      }
      _aBar
}
val aBarValues = aBar.values
// 缩放 abBar
val abBar = {
      val _abBar = summary.abBar
      val _abBarValues = _abBar.values
      var i = 0
      // scale abBar to standardized space in-place
      while (i < numFeatures) {
        if (aStdValues(i) == 0.0) {
          _abBarValues(i) = 0.0
        } else {
          _abBarValues(i) /= (aStdValues(i) * bStd)
        }
        i += 1
      }
      _abBar
}
val abBarValues = abBar.values
// 缩放aaBar
val aaBar = {
      val _aaBar = summary.aaBar
      val _aaBarValues = _aaBar.values
      var j = 0
      var p = 0
      // scale aaBar to standardized space in-place
      while (j < numFeatures) {
        val aStdJ = aStdValues(j)
        var i = 0
        while (i <= j) {
          val aStdI = aStdValues(i)
          if (aStdJ == 0.0 || aStdI == 0.0) {
            _aaBarValues(p) = 0.0
          } else {
            _aaBarValues(p) /= (aStdI * aStdJ)
          }
          p += 1
          i += 1
        }
        j += 1
      }
      _aaBar
}
val aaBarValues = aaBar.values
  • 2 处理L2正则项
val effectiveRegParam = regParam / bStd
val effectiveL1RegParam = elasticNetParam * effectiveRegParam
val effectiveL2RegParam = (1.0 - elasticNetParam) * effectiveRegParam

// 添加L2正则项到对角矩阵中
var i = 0
var j = 2
while (i < triK) {
   var lambda = effectiveL2RegParam
   if (!standardizeFeatures) { 
       val std = aStdValues(j - 2)
       if (std != 0.0) {
          lambda /= (std * std) //正则项标准化
       } else {
          lambda = 0.0
       }
   }
   if (!standardizeLabel) {
        lambda *= bStd
   }
   aaBarValues(i) += lambda
   i += j
   j += 1
}
  • 3 选择solver

  WeightedLeastSquares实现了CholeskySolverQuasiNewtonSolver两种不同的求解方法。当没有正则化项时,
选择CholeskySolver求解,否则用QuasiNewtonSolver求解。

val solver = if ((solverType == WeightedLeastSquares.Auto && elasticNetParam != 0.0 &&
      regParam != 0.0) || (solverType == WeightedLeastSquares.QuasiNewton)) {
      val effectiveL1RegFun: Option[(Int) => Double] = if (effectiveL1RegParam != 0.0) {
        Some((index: Int) => {
            if (fitIntercept && index == numFeatures) {
              0.0
            } else {
              if (standardizeFeatures) {
                effectiveL1RegParam
              } else {
                if (aStdValues(index) != 0.0) effectiveL1RegParam / aStdValues(index) else 0.0
              }
            }
          })
      } else {
        None
      }
      new QuasiNewtonSolver(fitIntercept, maxIter, tol, effectiveL1RegFun)
    } else {
      new CholeskySolver
    }

  CholeskySolverQuasiNewtonSolver的详细分析会在另外的专题进行描述。

  • 4 处理结果
val solution = solver match {
      case cholesky: CholeskySolver =>
        try {
          cholesky.solve(bBar, bbBar, ab, aa, aBar)
        } catch {
          // if Auto solver is used and Cholesky fails due to singular AtA, then fall back to
          // Quasi-Newton solver.
          case _: SingularMatrixException if solverType == WeightedLeastSquares.Auto =>
            logWarning("Cholesky solver failed due to singular covariance matrix. " +
              "Retrying with Quasi-Newton solver.")
            // ab and aa were modified in place, so reconstruct them
            val _aa = getAtA(aaBarValues, aBarValues)
            val _ab = getAtB(abBarValues, bBar)
            val newSolver = new QuasiNewtonSolver(fitIntercept, maxIter, tol, None)
            newSolver.solve(bBar, bbBar, _ab, _aa, aBar)
        }
      case qn: QuasiNewtonSolver =>
        qn.solve(bBar, bbBar, ab, aa, aBar)
    }

    val (coefficientArray, intercept) = if (fitIntercept) {
      (solution.coefficients.slice(0, solution.coefficients.length - 1),
        solution.coefficients.last * bStd)
    } else {
      (solution.coefficients, 0.0)
    }

  上面代码的异常处理需要注意一下。在AtA是奇异矩阵的情况下,乔里斯基分解会报错,这时需要用拟牛顿方法求解。

  以上的结果是在标准空间中,所以我们需要将结果从标准空间转换到原来的空间。

// convert the coefficients from the scaled space to the original space
var q = 0
val len = coefficientArray.length
while (q < len) {
   coefficientArray(q) *= { if (aStdValues(q) != 0.0) bStd / aStdValues(q) else 0.0 }
   q += 1
}
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